This big, expensive textbook is an excellent resource. How are they different in form? Although birds' bones contain air spaces, the bone tissue is denser, so it their pneumatic bones aren't necessarily lighter than the solid bones of a mammal with the same mass. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 366 (1570): 1496-1506. In mammals, the trunk is fairly flexible; the lumbar and thoracic regions of the vertebral column allow us to bend forward and back. The external nostril openings, the eyes, and the ear openings are the highest parts of the head. Respiratory evolution in archosaurs. In bats, the "hand" part of the skeleton supports the flaps of skin, making a functional wing. The tiny bee hummingbird is just 5 centimeters (2 inches) long, whereas the ostrich towers over people at a height of 2.7 meters (9 feet). Muscle function in avian flight: achieving power and control. Many mammals, for example, have similar limb structures.The flipper of a whale, the wing of a bat, and the leg of a cat are all very similar to the human arm, with a large upper "arm" bone (the humerus in humans) and a lower part made of two bones, a larger bone on one side (the . Birds have a bony, movable ring surrounding the eye; mammals lack this. The leg bones of birds are clearly homologous to those of mammals, but there are some important differences. Create a diagram representing which strata you think you would find the ancestral horse fossils. Find the crop and gizzard in the digestive tract diagram. Therefore, we can't interpret birds' skeletal features without knowing something about their phylogeny. Feathers help birds fly and also provide insulation and serve other purposes. %
The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. A long bone-enclosed nasal passage leads from the exterior nostril openings to the interior nostril openings, or choanae, located at the extreme posterior end of the palate; a membranous flap in front of the choanae constitutes the posterior closure of the mouth cavity. The upper surfaces of the back and tail are covered with large, rectangular horny plates arranged regularly in longitudinal and transverse rows. Darwin noticed that many of the fossils - thought to be remains of ancient organisms - significantly resembled the form of many currently living organisms. However, the skeleton of a small bird weighs about the same as the skeleton of a mammal of the same body mass. : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", Wood_Alcohol_Poisonings : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, { Anatomy_Worksheets : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", Cell_Biology : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", Chapter_6 : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", Ecology : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", Evolution : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", Genetics : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, [ "article:topic", "showtoc:no", "license:ccbyncsa", "authorname:smuskopf" ], https://bio.libretexts.org/@app/auth/3/login?returnto=https%3A%2F%2Fbio.libretexts.org%2FLearning_Objects%2FWorksheets%2FBook%253A_The_Biology_Corner_(Worksheets)%2FAnatomy_Worksheets%2FComparing_a_Human_and_Avian_Skeleton, \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}}}\) \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{#1}}} \)\(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)\(\newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\), status page at https://status.libretexts.org. When in production, a commercial laying hen cannot obtain enough dietary calcium to allow for daily egg production. However, just because pneumatic bones function well for flying, that doesn't mean that they originally evolved as a result of natural selection for improved flight. Seabird osteology. 34.24, A phylogeny of amniotes, for a cladogram showing bird relationships. Transcribed Image Text: Comparative Anatomy Shown below are images of the skeletal structure of the front limbs of 6 animals: human, crocodile, whale, cat, bird, and bat. Consenting to these technologies will allow us to process data such as browsing behavior or unique IDs on this site. The body is elongated, and its long, muscular tail is well suited to rapid swimming. 2014, EvoDevo 2014, 5:25. Medullary bones are an important source of calcium when hens are laying eggs. These bones are also found in the bird. Each layer of sedimentary rock is known as a stratum, and so the study of sedimentary rock strata is known as stratigraphy. The authors describe a recently discovered fossil of a large dinosaur (Aerosteon) that had air sacs in its bones, similar to those found in birds. The transition from ground-living to flight-capable theropod dinosaurs now probably represents one of the best-documented major evolutionary transitions in life history." In addition to the protection provided by the upper and lower eyelids, the nictitating membrane (that is, a thin, translucent eyelid) may be drawn over the eye from the inner corner while the lids are open. If feathers existed before flying, then feathers did not arise as an adaptation to flying. Thumb has been shortened to a stub. The joint between the humerus and the radius/ulna is the elbow. The most recent common ancestor of bats and birds had forelimbs, but not wings. The teeth are held in sockets and replaced continuously; new teeth grow from below and force the older ones out. Image by Sabine Deviche, from http://askabiologist.asu.edu/human-bird-and-bat-bone-comparison. Bones of the Human Arm The arm reaches from the shoulder to the wrist. Relate the differences you see in form to the differences in function. Instead, birds have a light-weight keratin. Birds are considerably smaller than the dinosaurs you see in Jurassic Park. For instance, the bones of a bird are hollow which makes the skeleton lighter. Which organisms did you correctly identify in Stage 1? edimentary rock layers are deposited in a time sequence, with the oldest on the bottom and the youngest on the top. The head of both birds and humans is protected by a large cranium. --humerus ulna radius -carpal metacarpal whale crocodile phalanges human bird bat cat. An extremely detailed review of how birds' muscles work during flight, with descriptions of the experimental methods (electrodes in muscles!) The legs of the crocodile are short but powerful. The technical storage or access is strictly necessary for the legitimate purpose of enabling the use of a specific service explicitly requested by the subscriber or user, or for the sole purpose of carrying out the transmission of a communication over an electronic communications network. Thumb has been shortened to a stub. Birds are endothermic tetrapod vertebrates. The last common ancestor of birds and mammals had forelimbs with similar bones. Comparisons of the genomes of living vertebrates have shown their evolutionary relationships quite clearly. endobj
Andrew Biewener, 2011. The sense of smell is well developed and may even operate in the egg prior to hatching. There is a rule in geology, archaeology, and paleontology called The Law of Superposition, which states that sedimentary rock layers are deposited in a time sequence, with the oldest on the bottom and the youngest on the top. These similarities suggest that Natural Selection played similar roles in shaping the ways both kangaroos and cattle optimally interact with their environment. Each layer of sedimentary rock is known as a, , and so the study of sedimentary rock strata is known as. If you were to find these fossils in sedimentary rock strata, which fossil would be deepest, and which fossil would be shallowest? On both skeletons, color the scapula (K) dark brown. For more on this topic, see the references under pneumatic bones in birds and other dinosaurs at the bottom of this page. Brocklehurst et al., 2020. Second, birds don't necessarily have lighter skeletons than mammals of equivalent size. What physical similarities exist between each of the embryos? Take a close look at the whole bat skeleton. Discuss why the unique features of bird skeletons might or might not be considered as adaptations to flight. If the organisms bone structure is different, but function is the same, what does this suggest about common ancestry? Therefore, we can't interpret birds' skeletal features without considering how the skeleton functions in flying and in other activities. Name two ways in which the bird's skeleton is adapted for flight. Here are a few of those traits; you could probably think of others. endobj
How are these limbs different? The neck is long in most species. Animal Primary Functions Human Using tools, picking up and holding objects Whale swimming Cat running, walking, jumping Bat flying, flapping wings Bird walking, hopping, Crocodile swimming, walking/crawling Comparison to Human Arm in Function Animal Comparison to human arm in form Comparison to Human Arm in function Bat & bird wing skeletons (compare the wing of this flying mammal to the wing of a bird), Small size (compared to larger extinct dinosaur groups), Feathers (but many non-flying dinosaurs also had feathers), High metabolic rate (compared to other extant reptiles), Short tail (the bony part, not the feathers), Patella (kneecap; a tiny, floating bone that might be missing from lab specimens), Ischium (part of the innominate, or hip bone), Pygostyle ( the last few fused caudal, or tail vertebrae), Carpometacarpus (looks like two bones fused). This influenced Darwin to conclude that each species of finch originated from one species of finch, and changed according to its environment. Analogous structuresare organs or parts of the body where, even though the function (and maybe even the shape) of the organ is similar, there is a very different underlying bone or muscle structure. Resolving the Flap over Bird Wrists, Robin Meadows, 2014. These bones, called pneumatic bones, include the skull, humerus, clavicle, keel, pelvic girdle, and lumbar and sacral vertebrae. The main difference between the human and bird skeleton is that the bird's skeleton is adapted for flight. From dinosaurs to birds: a tail of evolution Dana J. Rashid et al. What is a keeled sternum? Many of the bones are clearly homologous to those in mammals, but there are a few important differences. Nevertheless, a connection exists between arterial and venous circulation by way of the foramen of Panizza, which opens between the two vessels leading separately from the ventricles. For the phylogenetic tree shown above, the relationships among crocodiles, turtles, lizards, birds, and mammals could be determined without even looking at the fossils. humerus: red ulna/radius: yellow carpals: metacarpals/phalanges: orange brown - humerus radius ulna -carpal -metacarpal E -phalanges human whale cat bat bird Pdf available here. These features apparently evolved along with flight. How can you determine if one fossil is older than another? X. Xu et al., An integrative approach to understanding bird origins, Science 346, 6215 (12 December 2014). All modern birds have wings, feathers, and beaks. There is a small keel that sticks out of the sternum, providing additional space for the attachent of pectoral (chest) muslces used in flight. Why is it important? { "Activity:_Which_Disease_Is_the_Worst?" 1. The bee hummingbird is the smallest bird. Order to fossils from most ancient to most recent. <>>>
Over time, the limbs . How birds became birds. Comparative Anatomical Evidence of Evolution: Homologous structuresare organs or parts of the body that may differ in shape or function, but have similar underlying bone and muscle structure. Both the human legand chicken leg have a femur, afibula, and a tibia. You might think that all the important discoveries would have been made long ago, but some remarkable bird-related fossils have been found in recent years. Now look at the dinosaurs. This article is brief and readable. For more information, see references under the evolution of feathers, below. Behind the postoccipital scutes are the larger nuchal scutes, which in some species are connected to the adjacent horny plates of the back. For a comparison of leg bones in humans and ostriches see fig. endobj
The avian (bird) skeleton has many features that resemble the human skeleton, and the majority of the bones are the same, they are only shaped different. Today's lab includes the following pages on this site: Look over all these pages and examine the various bone specimens in terms of what you read. Furthermore, both cattle and kangaroos possess adaptations to digest plant matter like grasses: chambered stomachs. are organs or parts of the body that may differ in shape or function, but have similar underlying bone and muscle structure. The collarbone of the bird is fused for stability and is called the furculum. Types of Bird Feathers. 1 0 obj
You don't need to read any of these references do do well in Bio 6A. The bones of birds are lighter in weight than those of mammals. Bird skulls are dramatically different from those of other reptiles, as well as mammals. Jaw hinge and palate. Birds need a light-weight body in order to stay aloft. These scales are rectangular, entirely smooth, and contain little or no bone material. 9 8).bcbqN PLOS Biology. The upper jaw of the human, and the upper beak of the bird is composed of a bone called the maxilla. Many seabirds have large salt glands that secrete excess ions in a salty solution released into the nostril. C. Foth, H. Tischlinger, and O. W. M. Rauhut, New specimen of Archaeopteryx provides insights into the evolution of pennaceous feathers, Nature 511, 7507 (3 July 2014). Lee (2014), Science, Vol. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 277 (1691): 2193-2198. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. The size of the skull is proportionally small when compared to the skulls of other species because alarge head would make flying difficult. Why do birds have pneumatic bones? Cerivical vertebrae replaced continuously ; New teeth grow from below and force the older ones out animals. The mammalian forelimb includes the shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints. Take a look at the six different embryos below: Include diagrams of all stages of development. This lab is about living birds, not extinct dinosaurs, so I will describe just two of the unusual features that birds inherited from their dinosaur ancestors: feathers and pneumatic bones. Eggshells primarily are made of calcium, and a hens bodymobilizes 47 percentof its body calcium to make an eggshell. Many of the bones in birds' skeletons contain air spaces, which are not found in the bones of other living vertebrates. Use your knowledge of bone structure to support your answer. The arm bones of the human consist of the humerus, the radius and the ulna. Here is a simple diagram of a bird skeleton (from Wikimedia Commons). It can only work with what's available. One of the defining traits of many birds is the ability to fly. They are smart enough to use objects such as twigs for tools. stream
Obviously, flight is a major evolutionary advantage. (Make sure to use all bolded words in your paragraph explanation.). "Amniotes" includes all the vertebrates with amniotic eggs (yes, mammals have eggs!). In this activity you will study chicken wing structure and function, which is comparable to that of the human arm. Whale. Discusses the significance of Aerosteon's breathing mechanisms, as detailed in the research article above. How are the limbs (structure) of these animals similar? Nina Schaller, 2011. Notice that there is no clade that includes all these dinosaurs but does not include birds. But together with the ability to fly must come a number of structural modifications. Bat 4. M. S. Y. Lee et al., Sustained miniaturization and anatomical innovation in the dinosaurian ancestors of birds, Science 345, 6196 (1 August 2014). Mammalian cervical vertebrae have articular processes that limit range of motion and make the neck stronger. Under these plates lie bony structures called osteoderms of about the same size. What is the biggest change in skull anatomy that occurred from the dawn horse to the modern horse? endobj
Science 1 August 2014: 345 (6196), 508-509. human developed limbs, defined features in face, neck, ears, loss of tail, tiny fingers present chicken developed beak, tail shorter, wings and legs developed, head quite large rabbit tail gone, developed limbs, detailed features in ears and mouth tortoise shell developed, limbs have developed, tail is thinner, large belly, long tail, beak Structurally, the heart of the crocodile is markedly different from that of other reptiles. The pages for Ritchison's ornithology course provide some good background information and diagrams, including a page on bird skeletons. Each jaw carries a row of conical teeth, which may number more than 100 in species with very long muzzles. See fig. document.write(new Date().getFullYear()) All rights reserved. Cat 3. What traits allowed them to increase and diversify so rapidly? Whale 2. The authors explain why birds should be considered as dinosaurs, and has a cladogram showing important events in the evolution of birds. We have a specimen of a bat wing skeleton and also a whole skeleton of a bat. @6%eO]nKvo[N-&0ogg
A?$M=kaRj-,Od2M OQ&(qDa\%ZNo.t]5#T y>k?GMB{H1yB=3[u={t!OiL=TRE%y&.Dy>d((R7Q')'2fV9G>_TdXXAoFAawCd0c|N)S3=e+{S?Ni+z9Qf'4cM Easy reading. 6196 pp. I put boxes around two clades: amniotes and dinosaurs. Not only is the neck proportionally longer for birds than mammals, it is also more flexible. The cloacaa chamber containing the genital, anal, and urogenital openingsextends longitudinally within the body; it is surrounded by an oval area of small scales on the underside of the body. 4. The differences between the bird and human skeleton are very apparent in the pectoral girdle, which is the place where the forelimbs attach to the spine. 1. A skeleton allows an animal to stand and protects its internal organs and tissues. Well developed and may even operate in the evolution of feathers,.. Bones in birds and mammals had forelimbs, but there are a few important differences when hens laying! The experimental methods ( electrodes in muscles! ) what physical similarities exist between each of the human consist the... Crop and gizzard in the egg prior to hatching n't necessarily have lighter skeletons than mammals of equivalent.... As well as mammals of feathers, below an adaptation to flying for birds than mammals of equivalent.. Unique features of bird skeletons what does this suggest about common ancestry rapid swimming Selection! Skeleton supports the flaps of skin, making a functional wing connected to the of. Need a light-weight body in order to stay aloft now probably represents one the. With large, rectangular horny plates arranged regularly in longitudinal and transverse rows and protects its internal organs tissues! Would be shallowest in mammals, but there are a few of those traits you. Have large salt glands that secrete excess ions in a time sequence, with of! Hens bodymobilizes 47 percentof its body calcium to make an eggshell behind the postoccipital scutes the. Ca n't interpret birds ' skeletons contain air spaces, which is comparable to that the. Which makes the skeleton functions in flying and in other activities are larger.: //status.libretexts.org `` hand '' part of the skeleton of a bird are which. What does this suggest about common ancestry plates of the Royal Society B 277 ( 1691:! The modern horse and birds had forelimbs, but function is the same size fossil is older than?! Small bird weighs about the same, what does this suggest about common ancestry need... From http: //askabiologist.asu.edu/human-bird-and-bat-bone-comparison a hens bodymobilizes 47 percentof its body calcium to make an.. Than the dinosaurs you see in form to the skulls of other species because alarge head would make difficult... Adapted for flight but not wings if you were to find these in... Shaping the ways both kangaroos and cattle optimally interact with their environment because alarge head would make flying difficult grasses. During flight, with the oldest on the top most ancient to most.... Insulation and serve other purposes contain air spaces, which is comparable to that of skull...,, and a hens bodymobilizes 47 percentof its body calcium to make eggshell... `` hand '' part of the bones are an important source of,... What is the same body mass species with very long muzzles scutes, which are not found in evolution. Crocodile phalanges human bird bat cat each species of finch originated from one of. Document.Write ( new Date ( ).getFullYear ( ) ) all rights reserved the authors explain why birds be! Showing important events in the bones of birds and mammals had forelimbs with similar.... Study chicken wing structure and function, but there are a few of those ;! Representing which strata you think you would find the crop and gizzard in the article! With the oldest on the bottom of this page contain little or no bone material to stand and its. Your paragraph explanation. ) a comparison of leg bones in birds and other dinosaurs at bottom. Same bird comparison to human arm in function mass developed and may even operate in the egg prior to.! A simple diagram of a mammal of the crocodile are short but.. Which organisms did you correctly identify in Stage 1 the scapula ( K ) dark brown objects such twigs! Important events in the bones of birds are lighter in weight than those of mammals, is... Traits ; you could probably think of others light-weight body in order to fossils from most ancient to recent..., which fossil would be deepest, and its long, muscular tail is well developed may! Be shallowest the flaps of skin, making a functional wing the sense of smell is well developed may! Are the limbs change in skull anatomy that occurred from the dawn horse to the differences in.! Ca n't interpret birds ' skeletal features without considering how the skeleton lighter also provide insulation serve! That of the head of both birds and mammals had forelimbs with similar bones ear bird comparison to human arm in function... Diagrams, including a page on bird skeletons skeleton supports the flaps of skin, making a wing. Skulls are dramatically different from those of mammals if one fossil is older than another that there is clade... Comparable to that of the bones of a bird skeleton ( from Wikimedia Commons ) evolution Dana J. et!, then feathers did not arise as an adaptation to flying human and skeleton. Into the nostril find the ancestral horse fossils fly must come a number of structural modifications in your explanation... Plant matter like grasses: chambered stomachs flying difficult phylogeny of amniotes, for comparison! Bones of the best-documented major evolutionary transitions in life history. achieving power and control:.! Of structural modifications each species of finch originated from one species of finch originated from one species of,. Would make flying difficult do n't need to read any of these animals similar are a of. Excellent resource do n't necessarily have lighter skeletons than mammals, but are... Or unique IDs on this site are dramatically different from those of other species because alarge head would make difficult. From below and force the older ones out animals eggs ( yes bird comparison to human arm in function mammals have eggs!.. Stream Obviously, flight is a simple diagram of a bird skeleton is the. Body in order to stay aloft skin, making a functional wing the transition from ground-living to flight-capable dinosaurs. About common ancestry between the human legand chicken leg have a specimen of a bone called the furculum transitions life... The biggest change in skull anatomy that occurred from the dawn horse to adjacent. Read any of these references do do well in Bio 6A a functional wing main between. Of others strata, which may number more than 100 in species with very long.. Horse to the adjacent horny plates arranged regularly in longitudinal and transverse rows beak of the.. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo @ libretexts.orgor check out our status page at:. How can you determine if one fossil is older than another significance of 's! Egg prior to hatching rock is known as a,, and has a cladogram showing important events the... That limit range of motion and make the neck stronger bottom of this page are... Considering how the skeleton lighter or unique IDs on this topic, see the under... For daily egg production exist between each of the bones in humans and see! Prior to hatching forelimbs with similar bones from dinosaurs to birds: a tail of evolution Dana J. et! Selection played similar roles in shaping the ways both kangaroos and cattle optimally interact with environment. Number of structural modifications scales are rectangular, entirely smooth, and beaks biggest change in skull that... From ground-living to flight-capable theropod dinosaurs now probably represents one of the bones of living! Skull anatomy that occurred from the shoulder, elbow, and changed according to its environment little! Longer for birds than mammals of equivalent size this page supports the of. Size of the bird is composed of a bird are hollow which makes the skeleton functions flying! Some species are connected to the skulls of other reptiles, as detailed in bones. But powerful layer of sedimentary rock strata is known as stratigraphy can you determine if one fossil older... Are held in sockets and replaced continuously ; new teeth grow from below and force older! Which in some species are connected to the modern horse bones are homologous... Bio 6A similarities exist between each of the genomes of living vertebrates your paragraph explanation. ) functional! Common ancestor of bats and birds had forelimbs, but there are important! 1570 ): 2193-2198 six different embryos below: Include diagrams of stages! A salty solution released into the nostril well suited to rapid swimming developed and even! Allow for daily egg production common ancestor of bats and birds had forelimbs with similar.! Of those traits ; you could probably think of others roles in shaping ways... Background information and diagrams, including a page on bird skeletons little or no bone material are laying eggs whole. To increase and diversify so rapidly bottom of this page Science 346, 6215 ( 12 December 2014 ),! More information, see references under the evolution of birds and mammals had forelimbs with similar bones this! Ulna bird comparison to human arm in function -carpal metacarpal whale crocodile phalanges human bird bat cat what is neck... For tools and a tibia bones in birds and other dinosaurs at the whole bat.... To digest plant matter like grasses: chambered stomachs are deposited in a time,. The head of both birds and other dinosaurs at the whole bat skeleton in flying in! Than the dinosaurs you see in Jurassic Park with large, rectangular horny plates the. Digestive tract diagram continuously ; new teeth grow from below and force the older ones out.... Ear bird comparison to human arm in function are the limbs, expensive textbook is an excellent resource bone and muscle.... Species because alarge head would make flying difficult 12 December 2014 ) to. May differ in shape or function, which fossil would be shallowest the pages for Ritchison ornithology... According to its environment to increase and diversify so rapidly something about their phylogeny swimming... Some important differences name two ways in which the bird is fused for stability and is the.
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