Indonesia's Foreign Policy. A genuine shared ASEAN community and collective ASEAN identity is defined in this article as a state of mind and emotions of both political elites and individual citizens in relating to their fellow counterparts both rationally and emotionally that results in them taking into account the common regional good and caring for the well-being of their fellow citizens. From the 16th century until the 20th century, the major colonizers in Southeast Asia were European powers, including the British, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese. 3 (September 2013): 399-423. The revolts, and the economic disarray of the Great Depression, also suggested that European rule was neither invulnerable nor without flaws. The dispute between Cambodia and Thailand over the ownership of the Preah Vihear border territory which escalated into an armed conflict in 2008 serves as an illustrative example of the weakness of ASEAN solidarity, not to mention the strength of ASEAN unity (Weatherbee 2012: 3-22). Being separated from the motherland for so long gave. Singapore's quarrel. . Jakarta: Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, 2017. Not necessarily so. Jakarta: Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, 2014. Only through such efforts will there be greater understanding, awareness and appreciation of the regions interconnectedness that will aid the people of ASEAN in shedding their mental barriers of exclusive national identities and develop a sentiment of common belonging and shared destiny. Recognizing the instrumental role of former Japanese Prime Minster Shinzo Abe for both the establishment of the Indo-Pacific as a geopolitical concept and the development of Japanese-Southeast Asian relations, the essays in this special issue investigate the legacy of his government for the future of the region. Neo-colonialism is not just any domination, but it is an iniquitous economic relationship wherein a country uses the natural resources of another . While ASEAN as a language game played by the political elites is not united by any geographical or historical linkages but rather material and political-economic interests, Southeast Asia remains an organic region where cultures, histories, language and ethnic identities overlap and cross-fertilize one another. Imperialism affected imperialised peoples in both positive and negative ways. The result is a highly apathetic population who are more concerned about what happens within their country but remain unconnected and largely unaware of the region. In January 2003, Cambodian news media falsely alleged that a claim has been made by a prominent Thai actress that Angkor belonged to Thailand. In insular Southeast Asia the Javanese state confronted a similar crisis, but it had far less freedom with which to respond. Singapore: S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2007. Christopher B. Roberts, The ASEAN Community: Trusting Thy Neighbour?,, Mandailing is an ethnic group living in North Sumatra, Indonesia that is often incorrectly categorized with other ethnic groups as Batak. However, this continues to be contested by the government of Malaysia. A few constructivist interpretations have surfaced which attempt to fill this gap. Jones, David Martin & Michael L. R. Smith. Japan-Singapore Relations and Shinzo Abe Oceana, and Asia (Western Society, 2004). According to Karl W. Deutsch, the building of a community occurs only when a group of people develop common values to the point whereby a sense of we feeling and solidarity is shared among its members (Deutsch et al, 1957). Unlike the modern map of Southeast Asia with clearly delineated territorial boundaries and constituent national identities, pre-colonial Southeast Asia was a porous, poly-nuclear world of overlapping borders and cultural linkages (Chaudhuri 1990). "What impact did Western imperialism and colonialism have on Asia" . For example, Pohnpei, an . Colonialism also introduced modern medicine and education to many regions of the globe. As Europeans moved beyond exploration and into colonization of the Americas, they brought changes to virtually every aspect of the land and its people, from trade and hunting to warfare and personal property. The various imperialist powers set up industries in their colonies to make profits and thus paved the way for the industrialization of the colonies. Hoang Minh Hang, Senior Researcher, Institute of Northeast Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Vietnam, The Fantasy of Homogenous Time: When the Cold War Never Existed and Thailand Fought for Vietnams Independence, Same Same only Different: Reflections on the Squandering of American Power and Prestige, From Social Regulation to Social Movements: International network in organizing the ALTERSEA Conference, A Counter-Peace Perspective on Thailands Southern Conflict, Transgender Studies in the Kathoeis Community, Brazils Quadruple Crisis And Why It Matters For Southeast Asia, Hindering Democratization: Thailands Well-Traveled Trojan Horse, The State of Creative Activism in Post-Cold War Southeast Asia and the 2021 Myanmar Crisis, Through Thick and Thin: The Solidarity of the Crown and Capitalists in the Face of Thai Protests, Vietnams COVID-19 Success Story: From Low-Cost to High-Flexibility Strategy, Calls from Professionals for a Digital Culture Policy in Vietnam, Lawfare Strategy of the National Unity Government of Myanmar, A question of agency: Southeast Asia and AUKUS Being stuck in the middle does not mean ASEAN Centrality. Challenges for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Pacific Affairs 71, no.4 (Winter 1998-1999), 505-523. The continued political hegemony and economic exploitation of past colonies is something many ex-colonial leaders have spoken out about. It is perceived that only through the presence of a collective ASEAN identity would the region move beyond mere institutional integration and imbue a genuine sense of regional belonging and common destiny that will bring to fruition the aspirations as spelt out in the ASEAN Charter. The article argues that as national interests and an exclusive worldview predominates in ASEAN, it remains an arduous task for the generation of the kind of we-feeling that is required to fulfill the goals as articulated in the ASEAN Vision 2020. In particular, this article will discuss how colonialism has defined national identity based on exclusivity and erased any memory of pre-colonial affinities and collective past that could have served as the foundation of a shared regional identity. The Japanese were wary of these people because of their Western orientation but also favoured them because they represented the most modern element in indigenous society, the best partner for the present, and the best hope for the future. Consequently, the ASEAN Community and ASEAN Identity only exist in form but not in substance. From the 1500s to the mid-1940s, colonialism was imposed over Southeast Asia. A history of early modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1800. For instance, Acharyas work on normative regionalism argues that a collective identity has been successfully constructed among the political elites of Southeast Asian states through intense interaction and socialization (Acharya 2002). 4 They argue that an inherent tension between state sovereignty and regionalism exists as political elites are more concerned with the building of a stable, legitimate sovereign state as a vital prerequisite before the building of a strong regional community and identity (Hund 2010). For instance, racialised colonial capitalismwas implemented across the colonies in which a racialized hierarchy was introduced that stratified ethnic communities into their respective social and economic roles (Noor 2106). It is this continuity in the colonial language game that has influenced the Southeast Asian states to be extremely reluctant to give up any bits of their sovereignty. Chinas Continuous Dam building on the Mekong River. Journal of Contemporary Asia 42, no. 3 (2004): 573598. Chang, Jun Yan. As Linklater rightly pointed out, a genuine community involves identity amongst peoples and not just states (Linklater 1990). In preventing any prolonged armed conflict between its member states for half a century, ASEAN has also been credited with maintaining the regional stability that has allowed the rapid economic development of its member states, especially in the case of the Tiger economies of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. _____________. In addition, his evidence for the existence of a collective identity remains focused on functional aspects, namely, member states adherence to ASEAN norms such as the principle of non-interference and absolute respect for national sovereignty (Acharya 2005). These statements serve as an indicator that ASEAN is not united by any geographical or historical linkages but rather material and political-economic interests, whereas Southeast Asia remains a region where cultures, histories, language and ethnic identities overlap and cross-fertilize one another. This continuity in oppositional dialectics from the colonial era and the unconditional acceptance of inherited political borders as a given reality hinders the re-imagining of the region as a collective community with a shared past, present and future. It was not the purpose of the new states to effect rapid or broad social change. When forced to provide only a yes or no answer to the question of trust, 59.8% of the elites surveyed said they could not trust other countries in Southeast Asia to be good neighbours. Although varying in scope and intensity across the regions defective democracies and military or one-party dominated regimes, significant and worrying developments related to surveillance, data collection, censorship, misinformation, and harassment can be, This issue of Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia presents five case studies looking at foreign policy of five Southeast Asian nations: Cambodia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia and Thailand. Modesto City School. One example was how the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, which dismembered the contiguous Malay world encompassing Malaya Peninsular and Sumatra Islands, began to use divisive vocabulary that emphasized on the sanctity of national sovereignty and territorial boundaries (The Edinburgh Annual Register 1825). Except in Java and much of the Philippines, the expansion of Western colonial rule in most of Southeast Asia was a phenomenon only of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. The purpose of the organization was to prevent communism from gaining ground in the region. Similarly in May 2017, Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte advocated for the inclusion of Mongolia and Turkey in ASEAN (Koi 2017). Two panel discussions, in particular, shed light on why Southeast Asia, despite its long history of colonialism, has limited postcolonial perspectives compared to South Asia. Bangkok: Heinrich Bll Stiftung Southeast Asia, 2017. Results of the State of Southeast Asia: 2019 online survey, which seeks views of Southeast Asians on regional affairs. Rana Mitter, is Professor of the History and Politics of Modern China at Oxford University. over colonialism. . A few works by Hund (2010) and Narine (2004) have posited the persistence of a level of uncertainty among the political elites of ASEAN in their domestic political legitimacy as a key variable in their reluctance to create a unified ASEAN community and collective ASEAN identity. These cultural contestations exist precisely because genuine cultural linkages and interactions that transcend modern day national boundaries have existed prior to colonialism. And, if the general population appeared less docile in 1945 than four years earlier, the reason lay more in the temporary removal of authority at the wars end than in the tutelage of the Japanese. ASEAN today is in a state of an identity crisis. One example is how Singapores national identity is attached to the idea of exceptionalism that portrays the country as an economically advanced, meritocratic, multi-ethnic state as opposed to the constitutive other of economically backward, corrupted, communal states in the region. They argue that colonialism was the main source of inequality in a society that had thrived much better there before. Asia Before Europe: Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Kingsbury, Damien. 7. Singapore: Times Academic Press, 2002. Indigenous Knowledge and Peoples Network for Capacity Building in Mainland Montane South-East Asia (IKAP) Network for Capacity Building in Mainland Southeast Asia. Ethno-religious politics in Malaysia: Will Malaysia ever escape the political religio-race trap? China has the world's fastest-growing economy, increasing nearly 10 percent every year for the past 30 years. 1 (June 2010): 99-122 The effects of colonialism on Southeast Asia were both positive and negative, and have shaped the course of the region's history and development. Chinese Influence Contested in Southeast Asia: Domestic Political Economy Matters. Boundaries were drawn, villages defined, laws rewrittenall along Western lines of understanding, often completely disregarding indigenous views and practicesand the new structure swiftly replaced the old. An existing legacy of such a pre-colonial past can be found in the case of the sea-faring nomads of Sulawesi, termed as the Bajau Laut, who have stubbornly repudiated any form of modern citizenship up till this day and rejects the modern national boundaries of Southeast Asian states which majority of its citizens have accepted as a given reality. Singapore in the Malay World: Building and Breaching Regional Bridges. Europe controlled most of Southeast Asia by the 1890s. They neglect the possible influence of ideational elements on state behavior which is critical to the formation of any collective community. Early Southeast Asian subjects were extremely mobile and did not owe their allegiance to any fixed locality. Jeevan Vasagar. Tadem, Eduardo C. New Perspectives on Civil Society Engagement with ASEAN. Heinrich Bll Stiftung. Association of Southeast Asian Nation. Renewed power rivalry between the US and China has also forced the region to look for new ways to balance their interests (Acharya 2017: 25-38). The organization creates a vision for regional solidarity yet its people remain trapped in an inherited language game that has defined national identity based on exclusivity and a worldview that accept modern state boundaries as a given political reality. Most literature focuses on the security and economic dimension of ASEAN, which despite its importance, is inadequate in the discussion of a formation of a genuine regional community anchored on a collective identity. Under such an arrangement, it is not surprising that commonalities between states are often only highlighted wherever mutual benefit exists (Jones 2015). From its roots as an inward-looking multilateral regional arrangement, ASEAN has since expanded its geographical scope to engage with external powers in the Asia Pacific region through the creation of modalities such as the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan and Republic of Korea) in 1997 and East Asia Summit in 2005 (Prasetyono 2007: 109-116). Consider how most countries in Southeast Asia are named after independence, Burma for Burmans, Thailand for Thais, Laos for Laotian and Malaysia for Malays. The most serious circumstances were undoubtedly those of Vietnam, where from 1771 to 1802 there raged a strugglethe Tay Son rebellionover the very nature of the state. To this end, ASEAN political elites have embarked on a project to build an integrated ASEAN Community anchored on a collective ASEAN identity. The Japanese had no plans to radicalize or in any way destabilize Southeast Asiawhich, after all, was slated to become part of a Tokyo-centred Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere; in the short term they sought to win the war, and in the long run they hoped to modernize the region on a Japanese model. ASEAN Vision 2020. Accessed 15 January, 2018. http://asean.org/?static_post=asean-vision-2020. Lee Jun Jie is a humanities educator in Singapore and a postgraduate alumni of the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological University. But the chapter is not unremittingly negative. ASEAN Vision 2020. Accessed 15 January, 2018. http://asean.org/?static_post=asean-vision-2020. State sovereignty, political legitimacy and regional institutionalism in the Asia-Pacific. The Pacific Review 17, no. This will require both the political elites and citizens of ASEAN to break away from the inherited baggage of colonialism and abandon the language game of fixed, stable and exclusive identities. Philippine Literatures in a Derridean Sense: A Problem of (Re)versing the Region? Despite its nature as a work of fiction, it is based on historical realities and inform us on how identities were understood and framed as transient and dynamic during the pre-colonial era. ASEAN can be argued to be more of a community of convenience that acts as a functional tool for political elites rather than a genuine community of shared vision and collective identity. As national interests and identities predominate in ASEAN, it has become an arduous task for the generation of the kind of we-feeling that is required for the building of a regional community as articulated in the ASEAN Vision 2020. Instead, the continued preoccupation over state sovereignty by the political elites inhibits the formation of a genuine ASEAN community. June 25, 1997 10:40 pm ET . The formal and informal networks formed by these organizations have shown to ignore the language game of exclusivity and instead cooperated for decades on regional issues (Tadem 2018). Steinberg, David Joel. Thus, as aptly described by Jones and Smith, ASEAN remains largely an imitation community that are rhetorical shells and provides form but no substance to genuine regional integration (Jones and Smith 2002). They divided villages and ethnic communities to make territories into countries with borders. Southeast Asian countries do not identify with each other in the same manner as articulated in the ASEAN Vision. : The case of ASEAN institutions and the pooling of sovereignty. Australian Journal of International Affairs 56, no. Economic Impact. A statue of Sir Stamford Raffles marks the spot where he is believed to have first landed in 1819, on the north bank of the Singapore River . For example, Pohnpei, an island state of the Federated States of . Given the arduous tasks of nation-building that seeks to unite the disparate ethnic and religious communities within the political boundaries are inherited from the colonial rulers, the governments of nascent Southeast Asian states forged national identities based on constructed, distinctive national characteristics and values that supposedly sets them apart from their neighbours (Narine 2004). 4 (November 2012): 603-628. Colonization also led to deforestation and the overgrazing of lands. The fact that the principle of non-interference is upheld as the working principle of ASEAN since its founding is an indication of such a mindset. Since then, ASEAN leaders have repeatedly affirmed this agenda as the regions highest priority (Oba 2014). 1983. Indochina is a region that today we would consider as Southeast Asia, comprised of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam (Indochina, 2001). Region and Identity: The Many Faces of Southeast Asia.. Some of the negative impacts that are associated with colonization include; degradation of natural resources, capitalist, urbanization, introduction of foreign diseases to livestock and humans. Colonialism led to a "reversal of . Despite these efforts, ASEAN has thus far failed to develop a degree of ASEAN consciousness in both its bureaucrats and citizens that will nudge them to think of themselves as a member of the wider ASEAN body (Denoon and Colbert 1998-1999). As their armies extended their reach beyond earlier limits, these rulers vigorously pursued a combination of traditional and new policies designed to strengthen their realms. Thus, member states will have to de-parochialize their curriculum and re-tailor them to educate and familiarize the young people of ASEAN about their shared historical-cultural roots. Title. This was the generation that captained the struggles for independence (in Siam, independence from the monarchy) and emerged in the post-World War II era as national leaders. 1 (January 1986): 6-23. Nevertheless, during the 1920s and 30s a tiny but thoughtful and active class of Westernized Southeast Asian intellectuals appeared. the grand design of European colonialism in Asia and on some of its consequences. Existing ASEAN professional bodies and civil societies whose mode of interactions have become regular and organic may be helpful in organizing and facilitating these interactions. Of particular importance were efforts to bring villages under closer state control, curb shifting patron-client relationships, and centralize and tighten the state administrative apparatus. Japanese-Thai Relations through Two Coups: Back to Business Thus, the history of a single nation-state in Southeast Asia cannot be explained without invariably tying it up to the histories of other nation-states in the region. Proof of Thailand's tourist-industry claim to be the most exotic country in Asia. Like their colonial rulers, the political elites continue to perceive the region as primarily an economic space and securitized region. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org . By the end of colonial rule, the once multi-faceted and fluid identity of Southeast Asian has been replaced with institutionalized, singular identities narrowly based on political allegiance to a nation-state and social allegiance to an ethnic community. After about 1850, Western forces generally were more invasive, requiring only feeble justification for going on the attack. 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